Histopathological examination showed lung changes, described by the authors as moderate to severe, in all exposed guinea pigs. The tough, tiny fibers in asbestos help strengthen products like roof shingles, ceiling tiles, … Yes, the European Union is a protectionist Union but after all, it is to protect us Europeans. Once you start sanding the timber and make sanding dust then these chemicals become airborne. Im scared because my guinea pigs are in my room and the wood dust is just going to sit there in their cage. Painted wood of modern times is coated with paint that is not toxic. 8-34, 168, and 191), had inconsistent results (see, for example, Ex. 1-1005) found that 97 of 225 workers (carpenters, sawmill workers, woodworkers) exposed from 3 to 24 years to the dust of several different hard woods showed radiologic evidence of pulmonary abnormalities. 1-1029) confirmed this finding in other workers exposed to hardwood dusts. The neti bottle is a great way to clear away toxins from the sinus. For a dust extractor designed for use with a power tool, for‌ ‌instance, the electric sander. I have tried all sorts of solutions within my budget but never was able to completely eliminate it. Removing the irritant from your environment is the most important and obvious solution to contact dermatitis. The pleated paper dust filters that are found in most workshop-style vacuums do not have enough surface area to be effective. The parts of the body most often affected are the hands, forearms, eyelids, face, neck, and genitals. ... Bradman says these flame-retardants work their way out of your furniture and into the dust … However, dose-response effects were observed only for soft wood (i.e., pine) dusts. There was no significant increase in the risk of squamous cell carcinoma in workers from any other wood-related industry. OSHA finds these studies convincing evidence of WRC’s allergenic potential; in addition, the Agency believes that a threshold for occupational asthma exists and lies between 2 and 3.4 mg/m3. These participants stated that there was no health basis for making a distinction between hard wood and soft wood dusts (Exs. Asbestos was used as a fire retardant reinforcement fibre and often used in pipe lagging and other insulations. The changes seen included an increase in septal connective tissue components and aggregation of lymphocytes; however, no pulmonary fibrosis or extensive destruction of the parenchymal tissue occurred. This chart simply lists specific woods that can aggravate symptoms through allergic reactions, or woods that are outright toxic in and of themselves. The posthearing brief submitted by the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America (Ex. A study by Brooks, Edwards, Apol, and Edwards (1980) that was submitted by the United Petitioners (Ex. Im scared because my guinea pigs are in my room and the wood dust is just going to sit there in their cage. Like me would also have a history. For any filtered protection you need to refer to the specification of the filter. Simple paper masks are a compromise between a leaky mask and nothing at all. The distinction between hard woods and soft woods is purely botanical. The Agency did not regulate this substance after this decision. some basic precautions can help such as Removing yourself from dusty environments. The best way to prevent contact dermatitis is to prevent the dust from becoming airborne and landing on your skin or being inhaled. When we go about our work we tender to get carried away and don’t wash toxins off of the skin as readily as we should. It is not only the inhalation of wood dust that is airborne from using woodworking machines but also the risk of eye damage. Exposure to wood dust has been associated with health issues due to the natural chemicals in the wood, or substances in the wood such as bacteria, moulds, or fungi. These are effective and almost prevents any dust getting back to the atmosphere. At the hearing, Dr. Brooks described occupational asthma as follows: Some commenters (Exs. Some conditions have recognised symptoms because of exposure to a dusty woodworking environment. The glues used to bond MDF and chipboard (particle board) are recognised as toxic to people. Wood dust an associated cause of nasopharyngeal carcinoma. The Brooks et al. Health and safety precautions for large companies are pretty much dictated to by their insurers. Check box to confirm you've read and agree to our Privacy Policy. These timbers contain oils and resins that can cause sensitivity resulting in dermatitis. These units are affordable and surprising good especially the larger one with its auto setting. If wood is all natural, why is it associated with so many health-related issues? It is not only natural elements but also a human intervention that is a problem. The Finnish institute examined a selection of woodworkers which were tested with a variety of timber dust. It is always better to collect the wood dust at source but you have to be aware that some dust will escape into the atmosphere. Just a thought and maybe if your worried about the problems associated with wood dust then your concerns should not be just in the workshop. According to the Inter-Industry Wood Dust Coordinating Committee (IIWDCC): Among the work practices recommended by these commenters were maintaining clean work spaces, wearing protective clothing, and avoiding skin contact with the allergenic species (Ex. Burning of such materials releases poisonous gas into the atmosphere along with carbon dioxide. Record Evidence. This site uses Akismet to reduce spam. Household dust harbours a cocktail of toxic chemicals that have been linked to an increased risk of a range of health hazards, from cancer to … The bedroom is one great be vacuum bag of dust. 1-468; Brinton, Blot, Becker et al. Learn how your comment data is processed. 1978/Ex. The paranasal sinus and the nasal cavity is at risk of malignant cancers developing. One common ailment to our skin is ‘Contact Dermatitis’ which I am prone. The risk of inhalation of toxins is very high. Wood dust is either fine or coarse depending on how it has been produced. For example, Joseph Gerard, Vice President of the American Furniture Manufacturers Association (Ex. Certain woods and their dust contain toxins that can produce severe allergic reactions. A Washington State epidemiological study (Petersen and Milham 1974/Ex. Also, these raw wood products may release Methanol, which is known to the State to cause birth defects or other reproductive harm. If you must work on tanalised timber and producing some dust is a result of that. 1-466; Chan-Yeung, Ashley, Corey et al. Old Paint containing lead is highly toxic. This dust has a high percentage of dead skin cells not forgetting that bugs could be living and dying in your bed too. Air purifiers like you would see in domestic environments or even the kind that you find in a bar or pub are not the same. French Website: www.wallybois.fr Shop: www.wallycart.com Siret: 75205148200012. Fein Are better known for their multi-tool which has become the industry standard. Nasal and sinus cavity cancer. In this modern lifestyle where we are regularly using screens, monitors, mobile phones or tablets these two can cause dry eye syndrome so the practice of remembering to blink or reducing consumption of mobile devices will certainly put us on the road to recovery. 1-465) found that an elevated risk of lung cancer that was statistically significant existed among workers in the lumber and wood industry and in construction; however, smoking may have been a confounding factor in these results. 1-1042; Drettner, Wilhelmsson and Lundh 1985/Ex. Take stringent precaution as they would dust from tanalised wood will contain high levels of toxins. The symptoms of sensitization are redness, scaling, and itching, which may progress to vesicular dermatitis and, after repeated exposures, to chronic dermatitis. The answer is that we don’t really know for sure. The wearing of safety glasses or goggles is imperative if we are to reduce or remove the risk of eye damage. Your email address will not be published. In Study II, all DEN-exposed hamsters had nasal lesions ranging from hyperplasias and dysplasias to papillomas. All inhaled wood dust is hazardous to your long-term health. For some people, barrier creams may be the solution to prevent direct skin contact with wood dust. Wood dust is one of the oldest occupational exposures known to man, and it's still very important to today for those who have jobs ranging from cabinetry to mill workers. 12-290, 12-326, and 12-331). The end result of inhaling toxic long damaging particles is very similar to asbestosis. Everything else is secondary. Breathing airborne wood dust may cause allergic respiratory symptoms, mucosal and non-allergic respiratory symptoms, and cancer. pp. Inhaling of wood dust is a serious issue that can cause woodworkers some kind of life-changing condition. I got aspen shavings for my guinea pigs yesterday and there was a warning label saying this product contains wood dust which according to the state of california, can cause cancer. Here are some causes of dry eye syndrome: It is best to seek medical advice but from somebody who suffers from dry eye syndrome, I regularly use fake tears or eye drops. Or that everything gives you cancer—if you live in California. 1-478; Booth, LeFoldt, and Moffitt 1976/Ex. While you are here I feel I should tell you that this blog is based on my own experience & research on the subject of wood dust inhalation dangers and contact allergies. Based on the available evidence, several expert agencies have evaluated the cancer-causing potential of arsenic. study found asthma in zero percent of WRC workers exposed at 0.5 mg/m3; however, at 3.56 mg/m3, this percentage rose to 5 percent. It is estimated that 230 people develop lung cancer each year as a result of past exposure to silica dust at work. Dust deputy is a brand of cyclonic dust collection afterthought retrofits. Appropriate dust extraction vacuums aren’t particularly cheap but you do get what you pay for. Obviously, the most common way of preventing contact dermatitis brought on by irritant wood dust is by wearing appropriate PPE ( personal protection equipment)in the form of latex gloves or barrier creams. Other commenters reported that it is not possible to distinguish soft wood from hard wood dust except by chemical analysis (Ex. In most cases, the American Cancer Society does not determine if something causes cancer (that is, if it is a carcinogen), but we do look to other respected organizations for help with this. Cancer of the larynx, or voice box, has many possible causes. Any wood dust is dangerous but some wood dust is very toxic in larger quantities. There are many dust extractor solutions but they all cost some money but you could just make some behavioural changes. Summary of evidence for Hodgkin’s disease. I have been working with wood most of my life and I like many joiners have taken unnecessary risks with my health. Cancer is just one of many health concerns linked to the chemical treatments used in furniture. Hand sanding is a prime example of poor dust collection. This is caused by the fibres of dangerous blue asbestos having double barbs. A study by Vedal, Chan-Yeung, Enarson et al. It is always best to control dust at source but when some sanding dust escapes the dust extraction system an air purifier is a great way to improve the air. Health and safety has played a huge part in enforcing the addition of dust extraction ports to our woodworking machines. Small workshops are at more risk than a large workshop from dust pollution. These participants criticized many of the individual studies described by OSHA; some commenters found fault with several of these studies on the grounds that they involved British or other non-U.S. woodworkers (see, for example, Exs. Prolonged exposure to Oak dust, for instance, is a known skin allergen. Milham (1967/Ex. Several record comments agree that a separate PEL for WRC dust is warranted and that the threshold level is as described above (see, for example, Exs. Wood dust is known to be a human carcinogen… On December 11, 2002, wood dust was added to the U.S. federal government's list of compounds known to cause cancer in humans. 1984/Ex. Sadly our skin is not perfect thus it is susceptible to skin conditions. Many so-called “softwoods” are actually hard (i.e., Douglas fir as a softwood is harder than the hardwood birch) and one of the softest woods in existence (balsa) is botanically a hardwood (Ex. Like I said before that it is best to control dust before it goes airborne. Exposure to wood dust has long been associated with a variety of adverse health effects, including dermatitis, allergic respiratory effects, mucosal and nonallergic respiratory effects, and cancer. Based on this evidence, OSHA concludes that an 8-hour PEL of 2.5 mg/m3 is necessary to protect workers from the significant and often permanent effects of immune-mediated occupational asthma associated with exposure to WRC dust at levels above this limit. Commenters were of the opinion that this distinction was no longer warranted by the evidence; in fact, Dr. Lawrence Whitehead, certified industrial hygienist and a professor at the University of Texas School of Public Health (Tr. The prolonged exposure of carcinogenic wood dust is thought to contribute to the risk of lung cancer. Inhalation of wood dust is our main concern but digesting sanding dust can also be an issue. In 2009, wood dust was added to California's Proposition 65 list as a substance known to the State of California to cause cancer. English studies first identified this link by showing a 10- to 20-times-greater incidence of nasal adenocarcinoma among woodworkers in the furniture industry than among other woodworkers and 100 times greater than in the general population. We are not including chemical dusts that cause other acute toxic effects, nor long term effects such as cancer for example. Don’t Be a Fool like me and place your body into positions of great risk because of unprotected exposure to wood dust. Our bodies are covered with a self-healing flesh. In a cross-sectional survey of 1,157 American woodworkers (both hard and soft wood), Whitehead, Ashikaga, and Vacek (1981/Ex. The control has to be in the form of prevention as it is very difficult to remove inhaled wood dust once it has entered our lungs. a clean, sinus is a happy sinus. 144 to 455). The answer is simple: trees contain toxins. 1-1005) concluded that the literature clearly demonstrates an association between occupational wood dust exposure and nasal cancer. I do not recommend barrier creams or a chemical that could enter our blood through contact. 1-443; Andersen, Solgaard, and Andersen 1976/Ex. Soot is a byproduct of the burning of carbon-containing materials, such as wood, fuel oil, plastics, and household refuse. In response to those commenters who argued that none of the studies described by OSHA presented sufficient dose-response data to be used as a basis for establishing a limit, the Agency emphasizes that it is not relying on any single study to determine that wood dust presents a significant risk of material health impairment. Black, Evans, Hadfield et al. Wood dust is considered carcinogenic to humans (Group 1) according to the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). 1-469; Cartier, Chan, Malo et al. 1-397) shows such a relationship, with asthma beginning at a WRC level of 3.4 mg/m3 and a statistically significant reduction in forced respiratory capacity noted in workers exposed to 2 mg/m3 WRC dust or more. We must take precaution and understand the material we are working with. Two groups were exposed to fresh beech wood dust (a hard wood dust) at a mean total dust concentration of 15 mg/m3 for six hours/day, five days/week for 36 weeks, and one of these groups was also given 1.5 mg of DEN once a week for the first 12 weeks. Animal Studies. Cyclonic dust extraction machines are available on our Cyclonic Dust Extractor page. Although I am an avid Netti user some may say ‘addict’! Wood treatments such as tanalised timber contain arsenic. Asbestosis is irreversible and in some cases, you will have to have oxygen provided by a cylinder. As a woodworker who works in the workshop on a daily basis, the risks are high. For more information go to www.P65Warnings.ca.gov/wood These drugs behave like fake tears and lubricate the eyes where the tear ducts are struggling to keep up. p. 12-292; Tr. When sanding by hand with a sanding block your dust collection options are limited to impossible. If you have to work with materials such as wood that has been treated with paint or other chemicals take precautions. Goldsmith interpreted this finding to mean that inhalation of wood dust may impair large-airway function. For Western red cedar, a highly allergenic species of soft wood, the Agency is establishing an 8-hour TWA limit of 2.5 mg/m3. In hindsight ‘if only I wore safety specs’, but then that moment of poor judgement has left me with only one eye. Neoprene dust masks are more comfortable than standard dust masks. 1-467; Viren, Vogt, and Dixon 1982, and Imbus and Dyson 1985, both as cited in NIOSH 1987a/Ex. Four unions (Carpenters, Paperworkers, Furniture Workers and Woodworkers)(Tr. In Study I, none of the hamsters had lung or nasal tumors or metaplasia. In addition, there is good evidence in the record of the dose-response relationship between occupational exposure to WRC dust and woodworkers’ asthma. All inhaled wood dust is hazardous to your long-term health. [T]here are spasms of the bronchial tubes, there is reduced air flow on expiration…[the extent of which depends] on the extent of the exposure, and also…on the duration of the exposure….as a consequence of this sensitization and airway injury from the sensitization and the asthmatic reaction and the various biochemical and cellular changes that occur, there develops an associated process….the airways develop an increased sensitivity and an increased bronchospastic responsiveness to many different non-specific stimuli. Linking to a non-federal website does not constitute an endorsement by CDC or any of its employees of the sponsors or the information and products presented on the website. One is resin plastics and the other is the glue that bonds the particles together under high compression. Don’t expect an air purifier even if it is designed for the workshop to be the perfect solution. 1986/Ex. We have to remember that wood dust will become airborne and we are at risk of breathing it in. 1-454) found that exposure to higher (10+ mg-years/m3), as compared with lower (0 to 2 mg-years/m3), dust concentrations was associated with a statistically significant and higher incidence of decreased pulmonary function. 8-34, Health Effects Comments, p. 17). Prolonged exposure to hardwood dust can cause cancer in the nose and paranasal sinuses. This machine is aimed at the ‘Planex sander’ for fine dust and suited for dry lining filled joint sanding. OSHA concludes that establishing an 8-hour PEL of 5 mg/m3 and a 15-minute STEL of 10 mg/m3 for all wood dusts (except Western red cedar) will substantially reduce this significant risk. A large number of studies have demonstrated that occupational exposure to wood dust causes both statistically significant and nonsignificant increases in respiratory symptoms at exposure levels as low as 2 mg/m3. Avoid inhaling wood dust or use a dust mask or other safeguards for personal protection.” [Thanks to Hardwood floors Magazine] This is probably safe while the old wood is left alone. Asbestos. irritant, sensitizer, runny nose, asthma, nervous system effects, irritant, sensitizer, nausea, asthma, pink eye. Not only is sawdust an irritant that affects your eyes, nose, and throat, but it’s a known carcinogen that may cause cancer. 3-917) stated: Jamie Cohen, speaking for the United Petitioners, a coalition of labor unions (Tr. 8-34, p. 8). 3-362). Using machines that have dust extraction ports connected to an extraction vac is preferable. This could be simple changes such as sanding your workpiece outside where the air to dust ratio is much greater instead of a confined workshop. These allergens can be manmade or natural fungal growths. Occupational Asthma is a serious condition brought on by our working practices. 1986/Ex. The data on the relationship between exposure to wood dust and the development of Hodgkin’s disease are conflicting. Systemic poisons such as formaldehyde cause skin irritation and Burns. 8-34 (Imbus review, p. 6), 168, and 191; Tr. 8-34, p. 28), that most facilities in the wood industries use both hard and soft woods (Exs. Have you noticed that when you are using your mobile phone or tablet that you don’t blink as much? 1-474) in pulp and paper mill workers in British Columbia showed that workers exposed to wood dust at a mean total dust concentration of 0.5 mg/m3 had a slight but statistically significant decrease in pulmonary function values compared with controls. In my experience trying to totally eliminate inhalation of wood dust is a little in vain. NIOSH concurred, however, with the proposed PEL of 1 mg/m3 TWA for hard wood dust (Ex. XII, pp. Why? pp. And if it causes cancer in California why is it safe enough to be sold in Arizona? irritant, asthma, swelling of eyelids, boils, irritant, giddiness, runny nose, splinters go septic, nausea, sensitizer, wheezing, severe throat irritation, splinters go septic, cardiac and intestinal disorders, irritant, headache, asthma, vision effects. Medication is normally in the form of medicinal inhalers or for more severe reactions a nebuliser. This surface deterioration of the eyes is usually reversible but requires the woodworker to take precautions against our eyes from drying out. 12, pp. 8-34, 3-748, 3-682, 3-859, 3-899, 3-917, 191, 196, 80G, 80L, 80N, and 3-911; Tr. Woodworkers suffering from occupational asthma will have a feeling of tightness in the chess and problems breathing. The Agency finds the results of these studies biologically plausible and their findings reproducible and consistent. The Inter-Industry Wood Dust Coordinating Committee (IWDCC) stated: OSHA agrees with the IWDCC that the incidence of nasal cancer seen in the United States is substantially lower than that seen in other countries, particularly in Great Britain. As an example, my wife’s cousin died as a baby because he was chewing on a windowsill coated in toxic lead paint. “Drilling, sawing, sanding or machining wood products generates wood dust, a substance known to the State of California to cause cancer. Allergic respiratory responses are mediated by the immune system, as is also the case with allergic dermatitis. urea-formaldehyde is found in other Blues that is used in the production of engineered timber and sheet products. You are a risk of inhaling small particles into your lungs contaminating your lungs and potentially your bloodstream. Pulmonary cancer. In a later case-control study, these authors (Brinton, Blot, Becker et al. Learn about soot, which can raise the risk of scrotal and other skin cancers, as well as lung, esophageal, and bladder cancers. The reason: Proposition 65. If unlike me you’re a bit of a tool tart and want the best no matter the cost then I would recommend the Festool CTM36 AC PLANEX. irritant, nausea, giddiness, and vomiting, irritant, nervous system effects, asthma, splinters go septic, irritant, nausea, pink eye, giddiness, nose bleeds, irritant, nose bleeds, internal bleeding, asthma, irritant, excessive thirst, salivation, nausea, cross reactions possible once sensitivity to other woods have developed, irritant, sensitizer, asthma, nausea, headache, irritant, headache, nausea, swelling skin, blisters. Tanalised timber is widely used for exterior woodwork. The reason for this is that some timbers produce finer dust particles. Most common causes of cancer: The treatment of inhaled wood dust is not something that we can remedy but control. This study found: (1) that there was a statistically significant increase of nasal cancer among furniture workers; (2) that the nasal cancer rates among North Carolina furniture workers were much lower than those reported for English furniture workers; (3) that the number of nasal cancer deaths among North Carolina furniture workers decreased between 1956 and 1977; and (4) that a slight excess in nasal cancer may have existed among North Carolina furniture workers but is currently either declining or nonexistent. Human Studies. Hardwood dust is classified as Group 1 carcinogen by the IARC, meaning they are seen as a definite cause of cancer in humans. In a pilot study of 55 workers in a North Carolina hardwood furniture plant, Goldsmith (1983, as cited in NIOSH 1987a/ Ex. What the large group of studies being relied upon by OSHA to establish the significance of the risk associated with exposure to wood dust do show is that the overall weight of evidence that such exposures are harmful and cause loss of functional capacity and material impairment of health is convincing beyond a reasonable doubt. Wood Dust Wood dust is on the Proposition 65 list because it can cause cancer. The American Cancer Society lists more than 200 things in the world around you that are known, or probable, causes of cancer. Some people are born with this condition but others are sensitised to it. But if you are not in the position to change your profession you should consider using air purifier masks such as a Trend Airshield. The evidence in the literature does not indicate that any other species is nearly as allergenic as WRC or would cause nearly as high a proportion of allergic reactions among exposed workers. Make a dust control method statement. Woodworking produces a fine dust that becomes airborne. A later study by Beckman, Ashikaga, and Whitehead (1980, as cited in NIOSH 1987a/Ex. A modern material such as Conti Board, chipboard covered in a resin film. 1-468) in 1976. Sadly cancers are associated with the inhalation of wood dust. formaldehyde is thought to be a carcinogen. 1985/ Ex. Animals were sacrificed serially at intervals up to 90 days after injection. Consequently, OSHA had no PEL for wood dust when this generic rulemaking was undertaken. The Dust from sanding materials that contain formaldehyde is a serious risk to health. These participants argued that a lower PEL “for wood dust generally would be necessary or appropriate to address allergic symptoms” (Ex. Contact with the irritant compounds in wood sap can cause dermatitis and other allergic reactions. You will be subject to the destination website's privacy policy when you follow the link. Objections were raised by the Inter-Industry Wood Dust Coordinating Committee (Exs. Mucosal and nonallergic respiratory effects. The list ranges from wood dust to gamma radiation. This dust behaves a bit like flour and will absorb any moisture resulting in the surface to dry out somewhat. By making use of your tools dust extraction and a good dust extraction vacuum you can drastically reduce inhalation of wood dust. (5) The evidence for a separate limit for allergenic wood dusts. We know working is outside is a good idea when we produce large quantities of wood dust. In the early 2000s, the arsenic component of tanalisation was removed under EU ruling. Many participants submitted comments to the record pertaining to wood dust (see, for example, Exs. 1-943) found a significant excess of malignant tumors of the bronchus and lung in workers who had belonged to the AFL-CIO United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America. We have to take care of also for other chemical treatments. There is little you can do if you inhale wood dust. The word we all dread when we wait for the results of any tests, ‘Cancer’. A visit to the doctor can prescribe you some special eye drops to lubricate the eye surface. The best-studied of the allergic reactions to wood dust is Western red cedar (WRC) asthma; it is estimated that 5 percent of the workers handling this species are allergic to it. Wood dust was classified as carcinogenic to humans. Asbestos is not comparable to wood-related health and safety but be careful if the wood you are working on is close to asbestos. Harold Imbus, a physician representing the IIWDCC, stated: The 1980 study by Brooks, Edwards, Apol, and Edwards found a dose-related relationship between total WRC dust level and prevalence of asthma in employees in jobs with the greatest dust exposures. So the ideal solution, in my opinion, is to make changes in our work practices. Nasal and sinus cavity cancer. These commenters described their facilities and woodworking processes, employee safety and health programs, and concerns about the impact of the proposed rule’s limits for wood dust on their industries. OSHA concludes that other species are somewhat allergenic. 1-1005) examined subgroups of the workers studied by Whitehead and found no correlation between years of exposure to pine wood dust and pulmonary function. A carcinogen affects our DNA causing mutations. Workshop air filtration systems should not be considered as the complete solution. The risk can be greatly reduced with the use of good dust extraction vacs. The earliest U.S. study of wood dust exposure and nasal cancer was conducted by Brinton, Stone, Blot, and Fraumeni (Ex. This study, small though it may be, tends to support dose response, and a threshold level between 2 and 3.4 mg/m. This chart simply lists specific woods that can aggravate symptoms through allergic reactions, or woods that are outright toxic in and of themselves. Circuit Court of Appeals and the limits are not currently in force. Representatives from many affected segments of the wood industry stated that achieving the proposed limits of 1 mg/m3 for hard wood and 5 mg/m3 for soft wood would be technologically or economically infeasible or extremely difficult (Exs.

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